Ultrasonic colour Doppler imaging

Ultrasonic colour Doppler is an imaging technique that combines anatomical information derived using ultrasonic pulse-echo techniques with velocity information derived using ultrasonic Doppler techniques to generate colour-coded maps of tissue velocity superimposed on grey-scale images of tissue anatomy. The most common use of the technique is to image the movement of blood through the heart, arteries and veins, but it may also be used to image the motion of solid tissues such as the heart walls. Colour Doppler imaging is now provided on almost all commercial ultrasound machines, and has been found to be of great value in assessing blood flow in many clinical conditions. Although the method for obtaining the velocity information is in many ways similar to the method for obtaining the anatomical information, it is technically more demanding for a number of reasons. It also has a number of weaknesses, perhaps the greatest being that in conventional systems, the velocities measured and thus displayed are the components of the flow velocity directly towards or away from the transducer, while ideally the method would give information about the magnitude and direction of the three-dimensional flow vectors. This review briefly introduces the principles behind colour Doppler imaging and describes some clinical applications. It then describes the basic components of conventional colour Doppler systems and the methods used to derive velocity information from the ultrasound signal. Next, a number of new techniques that seek to overcome the vector problem mentioned above are described. Finally, some examples of vector velocity images are presented

Effect of Soybean Meal from Different Midwest Soybean Varieties on Growth Performance of Broilers

At hatch, 360 one-d old Cobb500 male broilers were placed in battery cages to determine the effect of soybean meal (SBM) from different Midwest soybean varieties on growth performance of broilers. There were 6 broilers per cage and 15 replicates per treatment. Dietary treatments cons0isted of 1 of 4 soybean sources varying in quality determined by crude protein (CP) content and processed into SBM. Two sources consisted of soybeans from a similar region and processed either commercially solvent extracted or experimentally solvent extracted at Texas A&M University. Additional sources included a low quality and high quality soybean, experimentally solvent extracted into SBM at Texas A&M University. Therefore, dietary treatments consisted of a commercially processed SBM with 47% CP (CSBM), or experimentally processed SBM with 42% CP (42SBM), 49% CP (49SBM), or 52% CP (52SBM). Diets were formulated to 1.05% digestible Lys and balanced using digestible AA values previously determined. Added dietary fat provided by vegetable oil was kept constant in the formulation across treatments. Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure in SAS 9.4, with cage as the experimental unit, cage location as the blocking factor with Tukey-Kramer adjustment for multiple comparisons used. From d 0 to 18, body weight gain (BWG) and d 18 BW increased (P \u3c 0.001) in broilers fed CSBM, compared to 42SBM, 49SBM, and 52SBM. Broilers fed the CSBM had increased (P \u3c 0.001) ADFI, compared to 42SBM and 52SBM, with 49SBM intermediate. There was no evidence for feed conversion ratio (FCR) differences in broilers fed 42SBM, 49SBM, and 52SBM. There was no evidence for difference among broilers fed experimentally processed soybean meal; however, there were increases in diet cost of $28.81 and 5.41 per ton for the 42SBM and 49SBM, respectively, compared to 52SBM. Feed cost per bird decreased (P \u3c 0.001) in birds fed 52SBM ($0.244) compared to CSBM ($0.271) and 42SBM ($0.266) with 49SBM ($0.256) intermediate, CSBM and 42SBM. Therefore, the lower inclusion of 52SBM in the diet could be used to maintain growth performance with potential cost savings

Effects of Grinding Corn with Different Moisture Concentrations on Subsequent Particle Size and Flowability Characteristics

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of whole corn moisture and hammermill screen size on subsequent ground corn moisture, particle size, and flow- ability. Whole yellow dent #2 corn was used for this experiment. Treatments were arranged as a 2 × 2 factorial design with two moisture concentrations (as-received and high) each ground using 2 hammermill screen sizes (1/8 and 1/4 in). Corn was ground using a laboratory scale 1.5 HP Bliss Hammermill (Model 6K630B) at 3 separate time points to create 3 replications per treatment. Increasing initial whole corn moisture was accomplished by adding 5% water and heating at 55°C for 3 hours in sealed glass jars using a Fisherbrand Isotemp Oven (Model 15-103-051). Ground corn flowability was calculated using angle of repose (AOR), percent compressibility, and critical orifice diameter (COD) measurements to determine the composite flow index (CFI). There was no evidence for a screen size × corn moisture interaction for moisture content, particle size, standard deviation, or flowability metrics. Grinding corn using a 1/8 in screen resulted in decreased (P \u3c 0.041) moisture content compared to corn ground using the 1/4 in screen. There was a decrease in particle size from the 1/4 in screen to the 1/8 in but no evidence of difference was observed for the standard deviation. There was a decrease (P \u3c 0.03) in percent compressibility as screen size increased from 1/8 to 1/4 in. Angle of repose tended to decrease (P \u3c 0 .056) when corn was ground using a 1/4 in screen compared to a 1/8 in screen. For the main effects of moisture content, high moisture corn had increased (P \u3c 0.0001) ground corn moisture content compared to as-received corn. As-received corn resulted in decreased (P \u3c 0.029) particle size and an increased standard deviation compared to the high moisture corn. Increased moisture content of corn increased (P \u3c 0.038) CFI and tended to decrease (P \u3c 0.056) AOR and COD. In conclusion, decreasing hammermill screen size increased moisture loss by 0.55%, corn particle size by 126 μm, and resulted in poorer flowability as measured by percent compressibility and AOR. High moisture corn increased subsequent particle size by 89 μm, therefore improving flowability as measured by CFI

Determining the Amino Acid Digestibility of Soybean Meal from Different Midwest Soybean Varieties Fed to Broilers

At hatch, 240 one-day old Cobb500 male broilers were placed in battery cages to determine soybean meal (SBM) apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of amino acids (AA). There were 6 broilers per cage and 10 replicates per treatment. A common corn-SBM crumble starter diet was fed from d 0 to 10 with experimental mash diets fed from d 10 to 18 with SBM as the only source of AA. Dietary treatments consisted of 1 of 4 soybean sources varying in quality determined by crude protein (CP) content and processed into SBM. Dietary treatments consisted of a commercially processed SBM with 47% CP (CSBM) or experimentally processed SBM with 42% CP (42SBM), 49% (49SBM), or 52% CP (52SBM). Two sources consisted of soybeans from a similar region and were processed either commercially (CSBM) or experimentally (49SBM) solvent extracted at Texas A&M University. Additional sources included a low quality (42SBM) and highquality (52SBM) soybean, experimentally solvent extracted into SBM at a pilot-scale facility at Texas A&M University. Dietary treatments were dextrose and SBM-based, and consisted of 1 of 4 SBM sources included in diets formulated to 20% CP. On d 18, broilers were euthanized by CO2 inhalation and ileal samples were collected for determination of AID of AA. Soybean meal processed from low, medium, and high CP soybeans resulted in increased concentrations of crude protein and indispensable AA. Individual SBM samples indicated that SBM with higher CP had lower NDF. Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure in SAS 9.4, with cage as the experimental unit, cage location as the blocking factor with Tukey-Kramer adjustment for multiple comparisons used. For soybeans grown in a similar region, broilers fed CSBM, processed conventionally, had increased (P \u3c 0.05) AID of total AA, Arg, His, Lys, and Thr compared to 49SBM, processed experimentally. Increasing the CP content of SBM from 42SBM, and 49SBM, to 52SBM increased (P \u3c 0.05) AID of total AA, Arg, His, Leu, Lys, Thr, and Val. Broilers fed CSBM, 49SBM, and 52SBM had increased (P \u3c 0.001) Ile, Met, Phe, and Trp compared to broilers fed 42SBM. In conclusion, CSBM and 49SBM were sourced from a similar location but processed either commercially or experimentally, respectively. Commercially processed SBM had improved AID AA compared to the experimentally processed SBM. Additionally, SBM with increasing concentrations of CP and AA had improved AID of AA

Evaluating Soybean Meal Quality Using Near-Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy

The objective of this study was to establish a range of soybean meal quality to evaluate the correlations between official analytical methods and near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS). Crushed soybean white flakes (Mark Hershey Farms, Lebanon, PA) exposed to mechanical oil extraction, but not heat processing, were used in this experiment. Ground samples (500 g) were put into cotton bags and autoclaved at 262°F for 0, 5, 10, 15, 30, 45, and 60 min at 29 PSI. This was done to simulate varying degrees of heat processing. A total of 2 samples per treatment were autoclaved in 3 separate blocks. The duplicate samples were divided and analyzed using NIRS and official analytical analysis (wet chemistry). Crude protein (CP), total lysine (Lys), Lys:CP, available Lys, available Lys:total Lys, protein solubility in potassium hydroxide (KOH), trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA), urease activity index (UAI), individual amino acids (AA), and total AA were analyzed to determine the degree of processing using official analytical methods. The correlation coefficient (R) and coefficient determination (r2) between NIRS and official analytical methods were established for CP, total Lys, available/reactive Lys, Lys:CP and available/reactive Lys:total Lys. Data were analyzed using the SAS (v. 9.4, SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC) GLIMMIX procedure and the CORR procedure to determine the degree of association of NIRS and official analytical analysis. When measured using official analytical methods, CP, total AA, Ala, Asp, Glu, Gly, Iso, Leu, and Val decreased (linear, P \u3c 0.05), whereas available/reactive Lys:total Lys, Lys:CP, available Lys, KOH, trypsin inhibitor, urease, Lys, and Cys decreased (quadratic, P \u3c 0.05) with increasing exposure time to the autoclave. There was a positive correlation between official analytical and NIRS results for CP, Lys:CP, available Lys:total Lys, total AA, Ala, Cys, Lys, and a negative correlation for Thr. A linear model was best fit (P = 0.011, r2 = 0.489) to predict CP using NIRS. A quadratic model was best fit to use NIRS total Lys (P = 0.011, r2 = 0.969), reactive Lys (P = 0.001, r2 = 0.988), and their ratio (P = 0.001, r2 = 0.981) to predict official analytical results. In conclusion, increasing soybean autoclave exposure time decreased soybean meal quality as measured by crude protein, total Lys, Lys:CP, available Lys, available Lys:total Lys, KOH solubility total AA, and additional AA. In addition, regression models were successful at using NIRS for Lys, reactive Lys, Lys:CP, and reactive Lys:total Lys to predict official analytical results

Evaluation of Conditioning Temperature and Die Specifications on Nursery Pig Performance

The objective of this study was to determine the effects on growth performance in nursery pigs that is linked to the conditioning temperature and die specifications used during the feed pelleting process. A total of 315 barrows (DNA; 200 × 400; initial BW 13.2 lb) were used in a 35-d growth trial. Upon arrival, pigs were weighed and assigned to pens in a completely randomized design with 5 pigs per pen, and each pen was randomly assigned to 1 of 7 dietary treatments with 9 replications per treatment. Treatments consisted of a mash control (MC) and 6 pelleted diets manufactured using 2 different pellet dies (length/diameter [L:D]: 6.7 and 2.7) and 3 different conditioning temperatures (low, medium, high). Conditioning temperatures for Phase 1 diets pelleted using the 6.7 L:D die were 80, 100, and 120°F and for the die with a L:D 2.7 were 100, 120, and 140°F for the low, medium, and high, respectively. Phase 2 condi­tioning temperatures for diets pelleted using the die with a L:D of 6.7 were approxi­mately 120, 140, and 160°F and for the 2.7 L:D die were 140, 160, and 180°F for the low, medium, and high, respectively. Diets were fed in three phases as follows, Phase 1: d 0 to 10, Phase 2: d 10 to 25, and Phase 3: d 25 to 35. During Phase 3 all pigs were fed a common mash diet. Overall from d 0 to 35, similar ADG was observed for pigs fed the MC or pelleted diets with the exception of the diet pelleted at the low conditioning temperature using the 6.7 L:D die, which had decreased (P \u3c 0.05) ADG compared to MC. When pelleting diets using the 2.7 L:D die, there was a tendency for increased (quadratic, P = 0.077) ADG in pigs fed diets conditioned at increasing temperatures, with the medium temperature having the greatest ADG. There was a tendency for increased (P = 0.088) ADG in pigs fed diets pelleted using the 2.7 L:D die compared to the 6.7 L:D die. Pigs fed pelleted diets, with the exception of the medium temperature on the 2.7 L:D die, had decreased (P \u3c 0.05) ADFI compared to the MC. However, diets pelleted using the 6.7 L:D die as well as the diet manufactured at the medium conditioning temperature on the 2.7 L:D die had improved (P \u3c 0.05) F/G compared to the MC diet. Additionally, pigs fed diets manufactured using the 6.7 L:D die had decreased (P = 0.030) ADFI compared to those fed diets pelleted using the 2.7 L:D die. In summary, pelleted diets showed poorer ADG but decreased ADFI and improved F/G, and no differences in final BW compared to the MC. Additionally, there was a numerical decrease in pellet quality when treatments were manufactured on the 2.7 L:D die; however, these differences did not result in a growth performance response due to conditioning temperature or die. Overall increasing conditioning temperature decreased the available lysine, and pigs fed pelleted diets had poorer ADG but decreased ADFI and improved F/G compared to those fed the MC

Determining Amino Acid Digestibility of Soybean Meal from South Carolina Soybean Varieties Fed to Broilers

At hatch, 240 male broilers (Ross 308, Aviagen, Sallisaw, OK) were placed in batteries (Petersime Brood Unit, Gettysburg, OH) for a 15-d study to evaluate amino acid digestibility of soybean meal (SBM) from specialty variety soybeans grown in South Carolina. There were 10 replicates per treatment and 6 broilers per cage. Broilers were given a common corn and soybean meal-based diet from d 0 to 9. On d 9, broilers were weighed, and cages were allotted to 1 of 4 dietary treatments within location block. Dietary treatments consisted of 1 of 4 soybean sources varying in quality determined by crude protein (CP) content and processed into SBM. Two sources consisted of soybeans from a similar region and processed either commercially solvent extracted or experimentally solvent extracted at Texas A&M University. Therefore, dietary treatments consisted of a commercially processed SBM with 44% CP (CON) or experimentally processed SBM with 50% CP (PCON), 52% CP (52SBM), or 56% CP (56SBM). Assay diets were dextrose and SBM-based, formulated to supply 20% dietary CP with titanium dioxide as an indigestible marker. On d 15, broilers were euthanized by CO2 inhalation and ileal samples were collected for determination of apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of AA. Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure in SAS v. 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC), with pen as the experimental unit, pen location as the blocking factor and adjusted using Tukey-Kramer multiple comparisons. Broilers fed CON and 56SBM had increased (P \u3c 0.003) digestibility of total AA, Arg, His, Lys, Thr, and Trp compared to those fed PCON and 52SBM. Digestibility of Ile and Phe increased (P \u3c 0.001) in broilers fed 56SBM compared to CON and 52SBM, while PCON was intermediate to CON and 52SBM. Broilers fed 56SBM had increased (P \u3c 0.001) digestibility of Leu compared to all other sources. Digestibility of Met increased (P = 0.007) in broilers fed CON and 56SBM compared to 52SBM and there was no evidence for differences between those fed PCON and all other sources. Broilers fed CON and 56SBM had increased (P \u3c 0.001) digestibility of Val compared to PCON and 52SBM, with no evidence for differences between those fed CON and PCON. In conclusion, broilers fed commercially processed SBM had improved AA digestibility compared to those fed experimentally processed soybeans from a similar region. The high CP (57% CP) SBM variety had increased AA digestibility compared to the PCON and 52SBM

Effects of Conditioning Temperature on Pellet Quality of Nursery Pig Diets

The objective of this experiment was to determine the effect of conditioning temperature on pellet durability index (PDI) and pellet hardness. A phase 1 swine nursery diet was formulated to contain 25% spray-dried whey. The diet was manufactured and pelleted at the Kansas State University O.H. Kruse Feed Technology and Innovation Center, Manhattan, KS. The treatments consisted of three different conditioning temperatures: 130, 145, and 160°F. Diets were steam conditioned (10 in width × 55 in length Wenger twin staff pre-conditioner, Model 150) for approximately 30 sec on a 1-ton 30-horsepower pellet mill (1012-2 HD Master Model, California Pellet Mill) with a 3/16 in × 1 1/4 in pellet die (L:D 6.7). Treatments were pelleted at 3 separate time points to provide 3 replicates per treatment. Samples were collected directly after discharging from the pellet mill and cooled in an experimental counterflow cooler. Samples were analyzed for PDI using the Holmen NHP 100 (TekPro Ltd, Norfolk, UK) in duplicate for each replicate. Pellet hardness was determined by evaluating the peak amount of force applied before the first signs of fracture. Pellets were crushed perpendicular to their longitudinal axis using a texture analyzer. A total of 30 pellets of similar length were selected at random from each replication to be tested and the force needed to crush each pellet was averaged within replication. Although conditioning temperature was increased in a linear fashion, a quadratic increase (P \u3c 0.002) in hot pellet temperature was observed. Increasing conditioning temperature resulted in increased (linear, P \u3c 0.045) PDI and pellet hardness. There was a tendency for a low correlation (P \u3c 0.076, r = 0.618, r2 = 0.382) between pellet hardness and PDI. Overall, increasing the conditioning temperature increased both pellet hardness and pellet durability; however, these two responses were not strongly correlated. Future research and more data need to be generated to determine the relationship between PDI and pellet hardness at varying levels of pellet quality to determine what factors influence this relationship

Influence of High Crystalline Amino Acid Inclusion on Poultry Diet Formulation and Pellet Quality

A total of 3 broiler diets were pelleted to determine the effects of diet formulation on pellet quality. Dietary treatments consisted of corn and soybean meal (SBM)-based control, the control with crystalline Val, and the control with crystalline Val and Ile. As crystalline amino acids (AA) increased in the diets, corn concentrations increased as SBM and choice white grease (CWG) were removed to balance for nitrogen-corrected metabolizable energy (MEn). Diets contained 54.2, 56.4, and 57.5% corn; 39.1, 37.1, and 36.2% SBM; and 2.5, 2.1, and 1.9% CWG in the control, Val, and Val + Ile diets, respectively. Corn was ground to approximately 1,000 μm and used to mix 1,100 lb of feed per treatment. There were 3 replicates per treatment with time of processing as a blocking factor and treatment order randomized within each block. Diets were pelleted via steam conditioning (10 × 55 in., Wenger twin staff preconditioner, Model 150) using a pellet mill (CPM Model PM 1012-2 HD) equipped with a 3/16 × 1 ¼ in. pellet die. The target conditioning temperature was 185°F for 30 s at a 34 lb/min production rate. Pellet samples were collected and cooled in an experimental counterflow cooler for 15 min to determine percent fines, standard pellet durability index (PDI; ASABE S269.4, 2007), modified PDI (three 19-mm hex nuts) and Holmen NHP100 for 60 s. Hot pellet temperature decreased (P \u3c 0.01) in the control diet compared to Val and Val + Ile diets, which were 184.5, 185.1, and 185.088°F, respectively. Pellet mill kilowatts (kW) were 9.1, 8.9, and 10.3 for control, Val, and Val + Ile diets, respectively. Pellet mill kW increased (P \u3c 0.05) in pelleted Val + Ile diets compared to the control and Val diets. Percent fines decreased (P \u3c 0.01) and PDI increased (P \u3c 0.01) as crystalline AA increased and added fat decreased in the diet. For the control, Val and Val + Ile diets, PDIs were 66.5, 73.6, and 76.6% for the standard; 37.1, 46.9, and 52.8% for the modified; and 53.4, 67.8, and 73.7% for the Holmen NHP100 for 60 s methods, respectively. In conclusion, diets with increasing crystalline AA, Val, and Val + Ile, led to improved pellet quality, which can be explained by the 0.4% or 0.6% reduction in added fat with increasing crystalline AA and balancing for MEn in the diet

Effect of Metabolizable Energy and Crumble Quality of the Diet on Growth Performance of Broilers

In order to optimize the growth performance of broilers, diets are formulated to a recommended ME concentration. In addition, broilers (chicks) are often fed diets in the form of crumbles in early production to improve growth performance. Thus, the objective of this study was to determine the effect of ME concentration in diets and if removal of crumble fines influenced the growth performance response of broilers. At hatch, a total of 300 one-day-old male broilers (Cobb 500, initial BW 0.093 lb) were used in an 18-day study. Broilers were housed in 3 Petersime batteries with ad libitum access to feed and water. Treatments were randomly assigned to 60 cages balanced by location, resulting in 10 cages per treatment with 5 broilers per cage. Treatments were arranged in a 2 × 3 factorial of ME content (1,376 and 1,346 ME, kcal/lb) and crumbled diets with or without fines (removed particles \u3c 1,532 µm or \u3c 864 µm). Crumble treatments were fed with no sifting (NS) or sifted using either a screen with 0.06-in. openings (removed particles \u3c 1,532 µm) or a screen with 0.03-in. openings (removed particles \u3c 864 µm). Data were analyzed as a completely randomized design using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS (v. 9.4, SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC). There was no evidence of an interaction between crumble fines removal and ME or main effect of ME. Body weight gain (BWG) and total feed intake (TFI) increased (P \u3c 0.05) when broilers were fed crumbles sifted with a 0.06-in. screen compared to NS and crumbles sifted with a 0.03-in. screen. Broiler feed conversion ratio (FCR) improved (P \u3c 0.001) when broilers were fed crumbles sifted with a 0.06-in. screen compared to those fed NS and sifted with a 0.03-in. screen. In conclusion, broilers fed crumbles with particles \u3c 1,532 µm removed had an improved FCR and an increased BWG and TFI regardless of the ME content of the diet. Increasing ME from 1,346 to 1,376 kcal/lb did not influence growth performance of broilers from d 0 to 18 d of age